We are in the midst of another titanic struggle in our country. In the book, “Habits of the Heart,” Robert Bellah helps to shed some light on what is happening. He suggests that there are four voices in America’s cultural conversation competing for the soul of America.[1] They all have historical roots in our nation’s story, most of them from the very beginning. Bellah framed each of them in terms of individualisms or freedoms. They are constantly waxing and waning in reference to each other, as they struggle against each other for prominence in the culture.
Religious Individualism
The first of the freedoms was
religious freedom. Bellah offered John Winthrop, a governor of Massachusetts,
as the major proponent of this freedom. The government and the rule of law were
heavily influenced by their Puritan Calvinist roots. In an article, A Modell
of Christian Charity, Winthrop
saw nature as a unified whole.
In the article, Winthrop saw God’s
purpose continuing in the world. Even after “The Fall,” it was God’s grace that
first called Israel, and now calls all who trust in Christ, into a covenant of
reconciliation. Winthrop defined this covenant as a call to build a “City upon
a Hill.” It was to be a model community whose hallmark would be its members’
willingness to be “knitt together in this worke as one man.” Another of
Winthrop’s principles was a willingness to give of something we have to help
supply the necessities of others.
Republican Individualism
In contrast to Winthrop,
Jefferson was used by Bellah as the prime proponent of Republican
Individualism. Jefferson’s strong desire was to make certain that the
Massachusetts experiment would not spread to the rest of the country, where it
was the Scriptures, as interpreted by the Church, which determined the rule of
law.
Jefferson considered his
authorship of the Virginia Statute of Religious Liberty to be among his
proudest accomplishments. He was the first to coin the phrase, “Separation of
Church and State.” The expression was first found in the Virginia Statute, and was
incorporated into his First Inaugural Address.
Jefferson did not want the
integration of Church and state in Massachusetts to ever again occur in
America. He believed that the individual’s sense of self receives its identity
from its relationships within the larger social order. The town meeting was a
significant and practical example of Jefferson’s vision. Participation in the
town meeting and having input in governmental decision making will help the
individual to discover a satisfying sense of self.
Utilitarian Individualism
Ben Franklin’s concept of being
virtuous, and achieving individuality, expressed a third philosophy. He did not
abandon the disciplines of Calvinist Christianity or the exercise of
citizenship. Rather, he embraced the means to achieve individuality by being
entirely self-oriented.
According to Franklin, one realizes
virtue or identity in much the same way one goes about learning or investing
money. This kind of individualism is acquired by ceaselessly practicing
self-discipline and productivity.
All of Franklin’s moral
attitudes are colored by his brand of utilitarianism. Franklin’s virtues, as he
wrote in Poor Richard’s Almanac, include punctuality, industry, and
frugality, which are central to Weber’s Protestant Ethic. According to
Franklin, those virtues, like all others, are only virtues in so far as they are
useful. It is the desired conclusion which is inevitable for strict
utilitarianism.[2]
Expressive Individualism
In the middle of the nineteenth
century, Walt Whitman surprised the American literary world when he published
his book of poetry, “Leaves of Grass.” In it, he defined a new moral language.
In many ways, his philosophy of achievement differed fundamentally from that of
Franklin. He wrote about taking time to be at ease and to “loafe.” The very
word would have brought shivers to the Puritans. He also wrote, “I need no
assurances; I am a man who is preoccupied of his own soul.” In other words,
Whitman took individualism into the heretofore unexplored arena of feelings,
introspection, and expression.
Whitman defined the self as
being inner feelings and empathetic experiences. Persons are good because they
are sensitive to themselves and to the situation of the moment.
Toward Understanding
Added
to the growing cultural complexity, there seem to be these four ideological streams
of individualism as well. Each of these paradigms is in competition with the
other three for domination of what might be called American culture. This
struggle underlies and helps to inform the current political and social
backdrop of our society. It is possible to see in our history how, at various
times, different combinations of these
philosophies have been dominant. Virtually every national controversy, past or
present, can be traced back to the struggle between these four ideologies.
What do you think?
Which of the four ideologies
seem to be dominant at this point in our society?
Does this understanding tell us
anything about where the Church stands in our society?
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